Article by Thessayist Network
IntroductionOne of the greatest challenges confronting educators is the articulation of an effective paradigm for adult teaching and learning. Adult learning per se may not be an insurmountable challenge, as the educational psychologist T.C. DeWitt (2003) points out but, adult teaching more likely is. Rather than assume that the problematic nature of adult teaching-learning is an outcome of adult mental non-receptivity to new information and a consequence of some biological inability to assimilate and digest information as would a child, scientists have determined that the problem of adult teaching-learning stems from the multitudinous concerns and responsibilities which adults have to grapple with (DeWitt, 2003; Manning, 2003; Michelson, 1996; Wilhelm, 1997). The child is a professional learner and his/her life revolves around school attendance and study, to the degree that learning may be defined as the child’s foremost priority and responsibility. The situation is entirely different where the adult learner is concerned, with career and familial responsibilities functioning as the foremost priorities and study/learning, a secondary concern which may even be resented insofar as it impinges upon the adult’s free time or the attention he wants to direct towards his other concerns (DeWitt, 2003; Manning, 2003; Michelson, 1996; Wilhelm, 1997). The articulated differential between adult and child learners has given rise to an entire body of literature on adult learning and teaching approaches and strategies. Each of the theories or learning strategies proposed for employment with adult learners is validated by a wealth of empirical evidence but, educational psychologists have incontrovertibly established experiential learning to be the optimal learning strategy vis-à-vis adults. Through a discursive analysis of this particular learning theory, its application s and outcomes, concomitant with a subjective experiential overview, the essay shall affirm the utility of this teaching-learning approach and argue that its strength primarily emanates from the fact that it embraces the principles of variant learning-teaching theories but maintains that assimilation of the learnt can only occur pending practice an application. However, rather than simply proceed from the assumption that adults learn best when they learn from, by and through experience, the essay shall first overview the scholarship of learning, present the variant and more popular of the learning theories and argue that even though each is inherently valid, experiential learning remains the most effect vis-à-vis the adult student both because it embraces the major precepts and teaching strategies presented by those theories and extends beyond their confines. Nevertheless, and as the argument shall highlight, irrespective of the learning theory that a tutor selects, if the aim is to create a dynamic and constructive learning environment, characterised by efficient and effective learning, the tutor must integrate elements of the experiential learning theory into his/her teaching style, especially as pertains to learning from, by and through experience. The Scholarship of LearningLearning theories abound and rose in concomitance with the evolution of psychology and formalised educational systems. The primary aim of the aforementioned theories, as Ehreman and Oxford (1990) explain was the development of the ideal learning and teaching strategy. In immediate comparison, the scholarship of learning and teaching is a recent pedagogical development. Defined by Kreber and Cranton (2000) as the systemisation of academic inquiry and research into the most effective, or ideal teaching and learning paradigms, the scholarship of learning and teaching arose in response to the plethora of competing educational theories and as a means of furnishing a scientific resolution to theoretical controversy and competition (Kreber and Cranton, 2000). Within the parameters of this aim, the scholarship of learning outlined the exigencies of articulating the knowledge-absorption capacities of the human brain in its variant stages of development and on the identification of the multitudinous socio-psychological factors which impact learning and whether or not these factors vary across the age groups and genders. With such scientifically validated data at hand, academicians and the proponents of the scholarship of learning argued that learning theories would, thus, benefit from a scientific base. Accordingly, learning theories would be more effective and efficient (Kreber and Cranton, 2000).The fact that a scholarship of learning has evolved in response to the imperatives of articulating a scientifically informed learning theory attests to the importance of the topic at hand. As Vermunt and Vermetten (2004) assert, in the absence of a scientific base for the understanding of the human knowledge acquisition and absorption function, theories will be little more than a trial and error process, based on assumptions and validated or invalidated through application. In direct reference to findings uncovered by the scholarship of learning, Ehreman and Oxford (1990) cite experiential learning. As they explain, research into the optimal learning and teaching strategies for adults has incontrovertibly established the value of experiential learning, defined as learning through, by and from experience. In order to better evaluate this assertion, it is necessary to define the componential elements of this particular learning style.Ehreman and Oxford (1990) maintain that experiential learning is comprised of three processes or components. These are (1) learning from experience, (2) learning through experience and (3) learning by experience. From a subjective point of view, the three components do not only appear to be interrelated, but restatements of a single point: experience is the best teacher. Learning through ExperienceSugarman (1987) and Wilhelm (1997) contend that there exists a fine line of differentiation between these three components. The concept of learning through experience references the fact that during a particular experience, even prior to its completion, adults learn. Personal reflection allows me to validate this point. Should we really think about it, we’d find that each experience is composed on numerous elements and smaller, or sub-experiences. Consequently, when we are experiencing something, we do not only learn from the larger experience but we learn throughout the experience and from the factors which comprise that experience.Learning by ExperienceAs regards the second component, learning by experience, Vermunt, and Vermetten (2004) define it as learning through the application of theoretical knowledge to a practical setting. As may be inferred, therefore, it is applied learning. Again, and from a personal and subjective viewpoint, the validity of this assertion may be confirmed. As an L2 or ESOL tutor and student, I have come across numerous learning theories and teaching strategies and styles which, on the theoretical level, sounded rather convoluted and complex. However, when I applied them to my classroom setting, I not only did I learn and understand hem better but I gained a first-hand knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses. The point here is that applying what I, as an adult student, have come across in my lectures and studies to my classroom setting, as a tutor, gave me an opportunity to learn by experience, through applied knowledge. Learning from ExperienceThe third and final component, learning from experience, is defined by Dewitt (2003) as the lesson learnt from the totality of an experience. In other words, and even though we learn as the experience is unfolding, upon the completion of n experience, and should we reflect upon that experience, we will discover that we have unconsciously assimilated valuable lessons and have learnt something. The point here is that each and every experience concludes with a lesson which, according to Dewitt (2003) children be not be able to consciously reflect upon but which adults can, making the experience all the more valuable.Theories of LearningEven though experiential learning, defined as learning through, by and from experience, has been highlighted by the scholarship of learning field as an invaluable teaching-learning strategy, its value has been somewhat overlooked by classical learning theories. According to English (1999) it is the responsibility of the individual tutor to correct this oversight and to integrate experience as a learning-teaching strategy into the learning theory they have decided to utilise, especially as pertains to adult students. Explaining why experience is a particular valuable learning-teaching strategy for adult students, English (1999) contends that the adult learner differs considerably from the child learner. Both have distinct needs, differing educational expectations and alternate concerns and motivations for learning. Integrating the above defined elements of experience as learning into adult tutoring paradigms is essential insofar as it rearticulates classical learning theories, such as behaviourism and cognitivism to better address the needs of adult learners. BehaviourismBehaviourism, as a learning theory and approach, largely derives from stimulus-response research and, as such, rather than focus upon the cognitive dimensions of learning, seeks to address the non-cognitive human instincts and motivators. Teaching styles are based upon operant conditioning, as proposed by Skinner, and which largely relies on motivating learner through a conditioned response-reward paradigm (McNeil, 1996). While this learning theory has proven successful vis-à-vis the management of employee behaviour and actions within an organisational setting, educators contend that it is hardly suited for curriculum delivery. Accordingly, and even though one may argue that its proven success with working adults within the work-setting could lead to the assumption that it can have equal success within the education setting, this is not entirely true. Quite simply stated, this approach is only useful as a motivation strategy for adult learners and not as a teaching and curriculum delivery medium (McNeil, 19996; O’Conner, 2000). Eve though the above lends to the conclusion that behaviourism is not effective vis-à-vis adult students, this is not entirely true. Were the tutor to primarily utilise this approach as a motivation strategy and integrate the concepts of learning through, by and from experience into it, behaviourism could emerge as highly effective. Quite simply stated, this approach is fundamentally founded upon the premise that tutors should condition students towards greater receptivity to learning by building upon their individual attributes and experiences. Consequently, by explaining and highlighting the value of experience and by conditioning students to reflect upon their experiences and identify any relationship between them and the material studied, the behavioural approach can be effectively rearticulated towards the embrace of experiential learning strategies. CognitivismCognitivism, also referred to by Papert (1993) is predicated on the socio-psychological and cognitive assumption that abstract learning is constrained by its failure to provide opportunities for application and implementation of the learnt. Students, irrespective of their age group, invariably respond best when they play an active and constructive participatory role in their own education. Were they to be simply treated as recipients of knowledge whose task is limited to the study, even rote memorisation, of the knowledge communicated within the classroom, the likelihood of real understanding and cognitive and psychological engagement with the knowledge communicated, followed by the ability to apply it is limited. However, were learners treated as active participants and the classroom as a setting for interactive learning, Papert (1993) argues that the assimilation of knowledge, concomitant with the ability to practically apply it, becomes much more efficient and effective. This is because learning is no longer simply an abstract activity but a practical one which engages students to the degree wherein they are called upon to utilise their past knowledge and experiences in order to engage wit the new knowledge and then practically apply the former (Papert, 1993).Insofar as the adult student is concerned, Scandura (2001) insists that this particular learning and teaching theory is the most effective. Supporting his assertion through reference to the fact that the adult learner, as opposed to the child or teenage learner, enters the classroom with an entire baggage of personal, social and work experiences with him/her, he argues the imperatives of exploiting these experiences and in establishing the correlations between them and the knowledge that is being presented and explored in the classroom. It is, in other words, highly suitable for the adult learner because it acknowledges and exploits their experiences.Experientialism As defined by Sugarman (1987), the theory of experiential learning is predicated on the assumption that students learn best by and from experience. Adopted within some fields of study and practice, such as the managerial, the legal and the health sciences, as the optimal learning and teaching methodology (Sugarman, 1987), it has been strongly critiqued by some educational scholars and professionals as wholly lacking in empirical support and logically flawed (Martin, 2004). It is logically flawed insofar as it presupposes the presence of “the skill and will to learn,” on the one hand, and the “capability of individual human beings to make choices and to act on these choices” (Martin, 2004, p. 135). As based on the aforementioned, one may deduce this particular theory of learning to be dependant on a certain degree of learner maturity, individuality and experience.In order to be able to accurately evaluate the experiential theory in relation to adult learners, it is contingent upon us to note that it does not seek the invalidation of earlier theories and does not call for their replacement. Instead, as Raelin (1997) explains, this learning theory proceeds from an acknowledgement of the validity of its predecessor and exploits many of the tools that they have devised. For example, it borrows from the interactive learning-teaching paradigm forwarded by cognitivism and equally acknowledges the participatory role that students need play in their own education; just as with the humanistic approach, it recognises the import of individuality and self-actualisation even though it does not actively seek the development of either, presupposing their existence; ad insofar as behaviourism is concerned, it similarly acknowledges the constructive role that a reward system can play in the motivation of learning (Raelin, 1997). In other words, it derives from and exploits existent theories, even as it transcends them. It transcends them by recognizing that the baggage of experiences which adults carry can function as an obstacle to their learning or can be constructively exploited to facilitate learning; it transcends tem insofar as it recognises and utilises the constructive educational value of implementing abstract knowledge and, thereby, allowing the learner to absorb abstract concept through practical experience (Sims, 1983; Raelin, 1997; Martin, 2003; Manning, 2004). In other words, this theory does not only embrace the principles and tools of those earlier mentioned but customises the learning and teaching paradigm towards a greater fit with the adult learner and his/her requirements. Not only does it recognise the vale of all that which has been indirectly learnt through experience but articulates a learning-teaching model which allows the adult student the opportunity to utilise past experiences and to digest, or assimilate new information through practical and interactive engagement with it. In is recognition that adults learn best through and from experience, this theory emerges as he one most suited for he adult learner. [To be continued]
